Writing Center: Other Writing Tips

The expectations of academic writing for American audiences may differ from other cultures. While a variety of styles, tones, purposes, and executions of American academic writing may be found, typically it is defined by several factors, including the following: 

• American academic writing is thesis driven. The purpose of most American academic writing is to make a point or argument (the thesis) the focus of the paper, and then to provide support for that point or argument throughout the paper. In American academic papers, the thesis is stated in the beginning of the text, usually in the introduction or first paragraphs. 

• American academic writing has a linear organization. Most papers written for American audiences are organized so that the development of the thesis is taken step-by-step, with each paragraph focused on one of those steps. Also, each paragraph is expected to be focused on one idea or point. 

• American academic writing is concise. Papers written for American audiences are focused on supporting the thesis and do not veer into information that is off the topic of the thesis. This same focus on conciseness is also true of paragraphs, in that each paragraph is focused on one main idea or point. 

• American academic writing is formal in tone and language. Slang, contractions, first person (I, we, us), and second person (you) points of view are discouraged. Word choice tends to be higher-level. Rhetoric and reasoning are often logically oriented. 

• American academic writing focuses on using deductive, evidence-based reasoning. Deductive reasoning is demonstrated by providing details in a logical step-by-step way that builds support for the thesis. Evidence-based reasoning implies that the support given for a thesis will be based on proven facts and logic. 

While American academic papers are thesis-driven and supported by evidence, this does not mean that opinions and speculation do not occur in American papers. However, if opinions and speculation are present or needed in a paper, the expectation is that the author identifies these opinions and speculations as such to keep from having their work considered to be biased or untrue.

— Jamaine Bell

Online Resources for English Language Learners 

Below are some links that will help you with English language conventions, writing, and reading: 

• Blue book of grammar and punctuation - https://www.grammarbook.com 
• Downloadable English grammar lessons and tutorials - https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/graduate-students/writing-resources-tutorials/downloadable-english-grammar-tutorials  
• An online American English dictionary for English language learners (Find definitions, example sentences, and hear the correct pronunciation of a word.) - http://www.learnersdictionary.com
• Common American idioms - http://www.englishdaily626.com/idioms.php 
• Common American slang - http://www.englishdaily626.com/slang.php 
• Free audio books of classic literature - https://www.openculture.com/freeaudiobooks#google_vignette 
• Free writing practice with feedback - https://writeandimprove.com 

— Jamaine Bell

Why do we cite our sources? 

Citing your sources of information shows that you are familiar with research in your field and can integrate research into your writing.   

NOT citing your sources of information is called PLAGIARISM and is considered stealing another's words or ideas. 

What needs to be cited? 

Any words, images, tables, data, or ideas that come from another person or source needs to be cited.  

Paraphrasing a passage in your own words still needs a citation if the ideas in the passage are not your own or not common knowledge. (See how to paraphrase correctly under the “Other Writing Tips” tab.) 

What does not need to be cited? 

Common knowledge or your own original words and ideas that have not been previously published do NOT need a citation.  

Common knowledge is knowledge that can be found in multiple sources and/or is information that is commonly known.  

Examples: Blood circulates through our blood vessels. Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Jonas Salk developed the first polio vaccine. 

Plagiarism is using another person’s words, creative work, research, or ideas without giving them credit. In short, plagiarism is considered cheating, or stealing, and all colleges and most businesses take a harsh view of it. The consequences of plagiarizing another’s ideas or words in your writing can include getting a failing grade on a paper, failing a course, or receiving further disciplinary action. (See page 43 on your student handbook for more on Maria College’s plagiarism policy.) 

Plagiarism includes: Copying, purchasing, downloading, printing, or paraphrasing another’s words, ideas, artwork, research, or other original work and presenting it as your own original work. 

Remember, you need to cite the source if you are borrowing the words, images, or ideas from another. 

How to avoid plagiarism 

The best way to avoid plagiarism is to cite the source (give credit to the source in your writing). Courses at Maria College follow APA style for citations—see the APA Style section of the Writing Center website for more guidance.

Here are some tips to ensure that you avoid plagiarizing another’s work: 

•  Take careful notes when you are reading research and preparing for your paper. If you pull a quote directly from the source and include it in your notes, be sure to mark it with quotation marks so that you know that the words are directly quoted. Another strategy is to use a double entry notes page, with your paraphrased passages on one side and direct quotes on another side (both will still need citations!). Make sure that you include the citation information in your notes, so that you can refer back to the reference later. 

• Don’t assume that paraphrasing an author’s words will not count as plagiarism. Even if you reword a passage in your own words, you still need to cite the source of the idea. 

• Over cite rather than under cite (cite more rather than less) in your paper. 

• When writing your first draft, include the citations. This will keep you from missing citations in later drafts. 

• Don’t assume something is common knowledge. If you aren’t sure, then cite the source. 

• Use plagiarism checkers. 

What doesn’t need to be cited? 

Some ideas and information do not need to be attributed to a source. Some general things that do not need citations include: 

• Common knowledge—information that is known by the average educated person and appears across a variety of sources or established facts or theories can be considered common knowledge. 

  • George Washington was the first president of the U.S. 
  • Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.  
  • The Eiffel Tower is in Paris, France. 

• Your own words, creative work, research, or ideas that have not yet been published.

— Jamaine Bell

Figurative language is language that goes beyond its literal meaning and provides the writer with tools to make their writing more colorful and appealing. While figurative language can be used with any type of writing to improve interest, it is most likely to be used in narrative writing, due to its ability to offer the writer language that is rich in sensory information and creativity. 

Here are some common types of figurative language: 

Metaphor—A metaphor is made by comparing two different things in one thought. Examples of metaphors include: a car is a ticket to freedom, her smile is a bucket of sunshine, you have a heart of gold. The first example compares a car to a ticket, the second compares a smile to a bucket of sunshine, and the third compares a heart to gold. Metaphors and similes are alike, with one main difference (see below). 

Simile—Similes are like metaphors in that they compare two different things in one thought; however, similes use the words “like” or “as” in the phrase. Examples of similes include: their house was like a castle, his thoughts bounced like a ball, they were as loud as geese. 

Imagery—Imagery refers to descriptive writing that evokes the senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Imagery is often combined with metaphors, similes, and personification to give a sense to the reader of being in the setting of a narrative. Examples of imagery include: a thick brown shag carpet spread like a sleeping bear across the polished wooden floor, the dog’s nails click-clicking across the cold tiles, the soft sugary sand felt as warm as a blanket, the wind howled and shrieked all night. 

Personification—Personification is taking an animal, object, or idea and giving it human qualities. Personification is often evidenced when a non-human subject is paired with a verb that implies a human subject. Examples of personification include: the sun slept in this morning, the pothole ate my tire, the light danced in their eyes, justice is blind. 

Alliteration—Alliteration refers to a repetition in the first sound of words. Alliteration is a common technique used in poetry writing; however, prose writers use this technique to great effect as well. Examples of alliteration include: a picture-perfect day, why wait to wear that dress, his best speech broke down barriers. 

Hyperbole—Hyperboles are over-exaggerations that are not meant to be taken literally. Examples of hyperbole include: that car ride took forever, his smile was a mile wide, her imagination stretched across the universe, we have a million things to do. 

— Jamaine Bell

After you have researched and gathered your sources, how do you go about incorporating them into your paper? Is there a right or wrong way to do it? How can you use the information from a source without quoting it directly? 

These are questions that writers encounter when writing academic papers. The purpose of incorporating sources into your work is to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic and that you are able to analyze and synthesize information from a variety of perspectives. Using sources to back up your claims is also a way to bolster the credibility of those claims (if your sources are credible.)  

Incorporating sources into your writing will be easier if you know how to use three writing tools—paraphrasing, summarizing, and using a signal phrase or author tag to introduce information and direct quotes from the source. 

We will look at these three ways to incorporate information or quotes from a source: 

1. Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing is done by rephrasing information in your own words. BE CAREFUL! There are good ways and bad ways to paraphrase. A good paraphrase will be written in your own words and phrasing. You may borrow words from the source, but if it is specific to the topic, you may want to include those words in a quote within your paraphrased text (along with a citation including the page number). See the example below of an original text from a source and both good and bad ways to paraphrase. 

Original text: 

With regard to educational discourses, most of the world’s governments discuss similar educational agendas that include investing in education to develop human capital or better workers and to promote economic growth. As a consequence, educational discourses around the world often refer to human capital, lifelong learning for improving job skills, and economic development (Spring, 2008). 

Bad paraphrase: Bad paraphrases will keep the basic sentence structure and most of the original text, with some words or short phrases changed. This is not considered good paraphrasing and is a little too close to the original and in some cases, could be considered plagiarism. 

In talking about education, most of the governments in the world discuss similar goals for education, which include investing in education to grow human potential or better workers and to grow the economy. Therefore, educational discussions around the world often talk about human potential, lifelong learning for job skills, and developing the economy (Spring, 2008). 

Better paraphrase: (Keep in mind that this is only ONE way it could have been paraphrased. Each person’s paraphrase will be different.) 

Most of the world’s governments have similar goals when discussing education, including how to invest in growing workers’ skills, which in turn can help develop the potential for their citizens and their economies (Spring, 2008). 

Reference

Spring, J. (2008, June). Research on education and globalization. Review of Educational Research, 78(2), 330–363. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308317846

2. Summarizing: Summarizing is taking information from a source or sources and putting it into your own words in a concise way. Like paraphrasing, summarizing is best done when the words are not borrowed from the original source. Again, if you pull specific phrases or words from the original source, you will want to put quotation marks around them and cite them with page numbers. Also, keep in mind that a summary will be shorter than the original passage. Below is an example of summarizing a longer passage. 

Original text: 

It often feels that ‘time is of the essence’ in nursing; a client alone and in pain, someone stops breathing, a medication due. Each of these situations requires immediate action in order to ensure that discomfort is alleviated, that life continues, or that healing proceeds. Each situation, common in the everyday existence of nurses, is influenced by objective time. Objective time is unyielding, without feeling and is connected to calculative thinking. Objective time and calculative thinking are bound by constant activity. There is no opportunity for the consideration of meaning. The busy work world of student nurses involved in learning the work of nurses is often pressured, intense and constrained by objective time (Pierson, 1998). 

Here is an example of a good summary. It restates the main point and supporting details, but in an original and concise way. Keep in mind that this is written in the writer’s own words, with quotation marks around specific words that had been pulled from the source. When you use words or phrases pulled directly from a source in a summary, be sure to include quotation marks around those words and page numbers in the citation. Each person’s summary of a text will be different. 

A nurse’s time is often “constrained” by the duties required for the job and is subject to the demands of “objective time” (Pierson, 1998, p. 167). Because of these constraints, as well as the demands required to take care of their patients, nurses often do not have time to reflect on the meaning of their work. Student nurses, who are learning while working, often feel pressured by the time allotted for their work (Pierson, 1998). 

Reference

Pierson, W. (1998). Reflection and nursing education. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 27, 165–170. http://livernspleen.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Clinical.Reflection.pdf 

3. Signal phrases: Use an “author tag” or signal phrase to introduce paraphrased information as well as direct quotes. Note that some cited phrases are a combination of paraphrased text and direct quotes. (Note how they are cited—anything that has a direct quote or quoted words should have a page number or other identifying information given in the citation.) 

An author tag or signal phrase simply puts the author’s name in the sentence to introduce the information you are citing. For example, 

According to Pierson (1998), a nurse’s time is often “constrained” by the duties required for the job and is subject to the demands of “objective time” (p. 167).  

Signal phrases introduce the information that you are citing in your text and may or may not include the author’s names. They can be varied and descriptive as needed. Here are some examples. (Note how the citation changes according to if the author’s name is included in the signal phrase.) 

In the article, “Reflection and Nursing Education”, the author suggests that nurses’ time is “constrained” and may lead to a sense of feeling pressured (Pierson, 1998, p. 167). 

The author suggests that nurses’ time is “constrained” and may lead to a sense of feeling pressured (Pierson, 1998, p. 167). 

Pierson (1998) suggests that nurses’ time is “constrained” and may lead to a sense of feeling pressured (p. 167). 

Here are some reporting verbs that can be used in author tags and signal phrases (there are many more!) 

Lastly, you should know that any direct quote pulled from the source that is over 40 words will need to be indented below the sentence that introduces the quote. For example: 

Pierson (1998) contends that nursing jobs are stressful due to the time allowed to perform the duties required. According to the author, 

It often feels that "time is of the essence" in nursing; a client alone and in pain, someone stops breathing, a medication due. Each of these situations requires immediate action in order to ensure that discomfort is alleviated, that life continues, or that healing proceeds. Each situation, common in the everyday existence of nurses, is influenced by objective time. Objective time is unyielding, without feeling and is connected to calculative thinking. Objective time and calculative thinking are bound by constant activity. There is no opportunity for the consideration of meaning. The busy work world of student nurses involved in learning the work of nurses is often pressured, intense and constrained by objective time (Pierson, 1998, p. 167)

Therefore, the duties and stresses of the job often create time-management difficulties for nurses and nursing students. 

Note the citations in the example. The first is a citation next to the author’s name for paraphrased information. The second citation is for the full quote that is pulled directly from the text. Note that this quote will need a page number in the citation. Direct quotes that are over 40 words and are indented DO NOT need quotation marks around the quote.

—Jamaine Bell

Paraphrasing is done by taking a writer’s words and ideas and putting them into your own words. Paraphrasing is an important skill in writing, especially academic writing, which involves incorporating and synthesizing words and ideas from other sources into your paper.  

Paraphrasing is a legitimate way to use another’s words and ideas in your paper. However, remember that you will still need to give credit with a citation to the original author in order to avoid plagiarism. 

Steps to paraphrasing: 

1. Read the original text thoroughly, making sure that you understand what the author is saying. 

2. Make note of the main idea that the author is conveying. 

3. Rewrite the text passage in your own words.  

4. Substituting or changing a few words or rearranging the sentence is NOT good paraphrasing. The new passage that you write should contain the main idea of the source text in an original way. 

5. Check to make sure that your paraphrased text contains the same idea as the original. 

6. Use quotation marks around any key word or phrase borrowed from the original. 

7. Add the citation of the original source. 

A bad paraphrase of a source text can lead to misunderstanding of the source text, misunderstanding of the main idea you are trying to convey, and/or possible plagiarism of the source text. Take a look at the following examples of good and bad paraphrasing: 

Original text: 

By affecting the development of pathogens in vectors, this vaccine could help reduce vector competence and thus reduce the transmission of diseases, such as Lyme," Cabezas-Cruz said. "Although the research, regulation and approval process can take about 10 years for humans, it is possible that it will be applied more quickly in animals, especially in livestock. This promising approach offers new perspectives for the prevention of vector-borne diseases. (Thompson, 2023) 

Bad paraphrase: 

By influencing the growth of the pathogens in vectors, this vaccine might make the vectors less able to work and will lower the transferal of sicknesses like Lyme disease. It might take 10 years to be approved due to regulations, though it might be used quickly in animals, especially farm animals. This offers a new way to prevent these types of diseases. (Thompson, 2023)

(This example only changes certain words, with little else changed. It is too close to the original to be a good example.) 

Better paraphrase: 

This vaccine promises to reduce “vector-borne diseases”, such as Lyme, by limiting the ability of the vectors to grow and transmit pathogens. Though it may take up to 10 years for approval for human use, Cabezas-Cruz states that it could be used sooner for domestic animals. (Thompson, 2023)

(This example captures the main ideas that are communicated in the original text with original wording and sentence structure.) 

References

Thompson, J. (2023, July 27). Scientists develop game-changing vaccine against Lyme disease ticks. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/lyme-disease-tick-vaccine-developed-1815809

— Jamaine Bell

The concept of rhetoric dates to the ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, who wrote The Rhetoric in 4th century B.C. E. (The NonProfit Times, 2022). Rhetoric and rhetorical devices refer to specific uses of language that are used to persuade another person of the merits of an argument or idea. 

Rhetoric has four modes that are considered important when writing and persuading others: ethos (credibility), logos (logic), pathos (emotion), and kairos (timing). Using these modes effectively can help an author craft an argument that will succeed in persuading its audience. 

Definitions and usage of logos, pathos, ethos and kairos 

Ethos refers to the concept of credibility, of the author, of the argument, and of the outside sources used to support the argument. Ethos is the first pillar of rhetoric, which shows the importance of credibility in supporting an argument. Ethos can be conveyed in academic essays through citing of credible outside sources, as well as citing the credible expertise or background of the author of the essay. 

Logos refers to the use of logic, facts, data, and reasoning when presenting ideas or persuading audiences. Reasoning can be either inductive or deductive, and is supported by facts, data, observations, and connections made by the author or others. Along with ethos, logos is thought to be one of the strongest rhetorical modes used in supporting an academic or scholarly argument. 

Pathos refers to appealing to the audience's emotions regarding a topic or idea. These appeals can be either positive or negative, but they are specifically designed to elicit an emotional response from the audience. While the use of pathos is not prohibited in academic writing, it is generally considered a lesser appeal than ethos or logic as supports for arguments. 

Kairos is not referenced as often as ethos, logos, or pathos. Kairos refers to timing, specifically the timing of the argument. In academic writing, kairos may refer to the timeliness of research on a topic or the timing of the delivery of information to an audience. 

Rhetorical Devices 

While the four modes of rhetoric are important to understand in crafting an argument, other rhetorical devices are also employed that are useful in persuading an audience. These devices are often familiar and are used by almost everyone but understanding them and how they are used to persuade others is an important skill for an author. Here are some commonly known devices. For a longer list, visit Thesaurus.com (2023) at https://www.thesaurus.com/e/writing/rhetorical-devices/ 

Metaphor—a metaphor is a comparison that is made between two unrelated things. “Your smile is a bucket of sunshine” is a metaphor. It compares your smile to a bucket of sunshine, which are two unrelated things. By making the comparison, the writer is inferring a similarity between them.  

Hyperbole—hyperbole is an over-exaggeration. To say that there were a million stairs to climb would be an example of hyperbole. Over-exaggeration can skew an audience’s understanding of an idea or argument. 

Sarcasm—sarcasm is something that many people are familiar with. Sarcasm involves inferring the opposite meaning of what is said or written, usually through tone. An example of sarcasm would be a student walking into a classroom and finding that there is an unexpected test and thinking, “oh, great,’ with the inference being that their reaction is the exact opposite of “oh, great.” Sarcasm is used to belittle another idea and make it less appealing to the audience. 

Rhetorical question—rhetorical questions are questions that are asked that have no expectation of an answer. They are frequently used in argumentation, particularly when introducing an idea or topic. Rhetorical questions can be used to prime the audience to think about the topic of the question; however, the person asking the question often provides the answer for the audience, which gives the illusion that the answer was what the audience must have been thinking. “What’s wrong with math?” is an example of a rhetorical question. 

References

NonProfit Times. (2022, January 25). Know your Greek: Ethos, pathos, and logos. https://thenonprofittimes.com/grant/know-your-greek-ethos-pathos-and-logos/ 

Thesaurus.com. (2023, January 30). The top 41 rhetorical devices that will make your words memorable. https://www.thesaurus.com/e/writing/rhetorical-devices/ 

— Jamaine Bell

A thesis statement is a sentence (sometimes more) that sums up the main idea of your essay and gives the reader the direction your paper will take in supporting that idea. The thesis statement often comes at the end of the introductory paragraph. 

How to create a thesis statement

1. Research your topic—think of what aspects of the topic you wish to discuss in your paper. 

2. Define your topic—be a specific as you can. 

3. Ask a question about that topic. 

4. Answer the question that you asked about the topic. 

5. Rewrite the answer that you have into a complete statement, including any possible support or arguments that you will use to support your statement (see examples below).  

This will give you a working thesis statement. Remember, a working thesis statement can be changed or altered as you progress through the writing process.

A good thesis statement: 

• Takes a stand on a topic 

• Answers the question or prompt given 

• Is specific— it should only contain what you will be covering in your paper 

• Expresses one idea 

• Is narrow enough to be discussed adequately in your paper 

• Includes the direction that you will take in arguing, describing, and/or supporting the main points in your paper. 

• Uses specific nouns, action verbs, and a strong statement about the topic in your thesis statement. 

Examples of weak vs. strong thesis statements 

Weak: The ocean is polluted, and we must all work to clean it. (The topic is too broad to cover in a short paper)

Stronger: Developed nations have contributed more to ocean pollution than lesser developed nations, so the cost of cleaning it should fall primarily on those who are most responsible. (This has more specific details)

Strongest: Developed nations have contributed more to ocean pollution than lesser developed nations, so the cost of cleaning it, including retrieval and disposal of the pollutants as well as continued monitoring afterwards, should fall primarily on those who are most responsible. (This has a specific, narrow topic that includes details that can be discussed relevant to the thesis)

Another set of examples:

Weak: Our economy is bad and will get worse before it gets better. (This topic is too broad and lacks details)

Stronger: The economy of United States is showing signs of stress and may take some time before it recovers. (This is more specific but could include more of your argument)

Strongest: The United States’ GDP has slowed down in the past year and may not recover until interest rates on its outstanding debts are lowered. (This is specific, with the framework of the argument included)

— Jamaine Bell