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Click through the tabs in this section for tips and guidance on some common types of writing assignments.
An academic paper is an original piece of writing that analyzes a topic and incorporates academic research. Writing an academic paper requires finding relevant credible information (research) that supports the thesis (focus) of your paper. An academic paper may analyze, interpret, or take a position on a topic using support (evidence) from the gathered sources. Writing an academic paper gives you a chance to show your knowledge about the topic as well as your ability to engage with sources of information.
One type of academic paper is the research paper, which follows a specific format and is typically used for empirical studies. Research papers may include an abstract, an original research hypothesis, a literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Types of research papers include case studies, experiments, surveys, lab reports, and meta-analyses.
Other types of academic papers include literature reviews, literary analysis, position papers, response papers, cause and effect papers, compare and contrast papers, annotated bibliographies, and reviews.
Writing an academic paper is easier if you follow these steps:
Understand the prompt or assignment
Define and narrow down the topic
Conduct research/take notes
Write a working thesis statement
Create an outline for your paper
Organize your notes
Write the first draft (introduction, body, conclusion, references)
Edit and revise (as many times as needed)
Proofread
Turn in for a grade
1. Understand the prompt or assignment.
The first step in writing your paper is understanding what you are being asked to write. Often, an instructor will give you specific instructions on what to include in your paper, along with the expectations for the assignment. If you are given a question to answer, then answering that question will be the focus of your paper. If you are given a broad topic to write on, you will need to narrow down the topic’s focus for your paper. If you have the choice of choosing the topic of your paper, you will need to find your topic and then narrow that focus down for your paper (more on narrowing down the topic in #2).
Some tips on understanding the prompt or assignment:
Read the prompt carefully. Be sure that you understand everything that is required to include in your paper. If your instructor has given you a rubric, read it carefully to ensure that you understand what is required.
Underline or circle important words and phrases. Be sure that you understand the meaning of the words in context of the assignment.
Know the terms often used in writing assignments:
Often, the topic of your paper will be given to you from your instructor; however, you may also be required to define your own topic for research. If you are having a difficult time defining your topic, some suggestions to help you include:
Choosing a topic that interests you
Discuss your topic ideas with your instructor or other students
Conduct preliminary research into topics to search for topic ideas
Narrowing down your topic
Once you have a general topic, you may need to narrow it down to be specific enough for your paper. If you choose a topic that is too broad, for example “Pollution in the Ocean”, you may find that there are too many facets that need to be considered and that including everything needed to be discussed would require writing a much longer paper that you want to write. To discuss a topic thoroughly, it should be specific and narrow enough to write about in your paper.
Ways to narrow down your topic
Start by asking questions about your topic, such as what, who, when, where, how, and why. Give specific answers to these questions. For example, if you wanted to narrow down the topic idea of “Pollution in the ocean”, you might ask yourself:
What—What are the types of pollutants in the ocean? What can be done to clean it up?
Who—Who is polluting the ocean? Who will pay for the clean up? Who will do the clean up?
When—When did ocean pollution begin? What will it become in the future if it continues at present rate?
Where—Where does ocean pollution originate? Where does it end up? What currents does it travel? Where will we put the collected pollutants that we remove?
How—How did the ocean become so polluted? How will we clean it up? How will we determine if it is truly clean?
Why—Why is a polluted ocean bad? Why do we need to clean it up?
By answering these types of questions with specific answers, you will start to dig into the topic and may find that the answers can lead to a specific and narrowed topic.
One more word on defining your topic
Keep in mind that as you work through these steps, you may find that further research causes you to adjust your topic slightly. That is OK—everything is a work in progress until you turn in your paper!
3. Conduct research/take notes
After you have your narrowed topic, you are ready to conduct research on that topic. Be sure to follow your instructor’s advice on the type of outside sources you may use. Some types of research may require a specific type of research support while others may use less formal sources, depending on the requirements for the paper and the topic.
Here are some suggestions for conducting your research:
Start your research with the Maria College library database: https://mariacollege.libguides.com/home
Type in a keyword, author name, or name of a book or periodical in the search field.
Use Google’s scholarly database for peer-reviewed articles in scholarly journals. Access the Google database at https://scholar.google.com
Don’t forget to mine your sources! If you have any sources that have references listed, search through those references to see if any apply to your needs.
Don’t forget to evaluate your sources!
Not all sources are considered credible. How do you tell if a source is credible or not? Try using the C.A.R.S. method of source evaluation https://sites.google.com/site/evaluateinformationsources/carschecklist
C—Credibility. Is the author an authority on the subject? How do you know? Do they care about how the subject is presented? Do they have an agenda (a personal reason for publishing the article)?
A—Accuracy. Is the information current? Complete? Correct? Does the information given contradict itself? Does it contradict other articles on the same subject? How are the facts and data presented? Is it clear? Where did the information come from? How old is the information? Is it still reliable or relevant?
R—Reasonableness. Is the source truthful? Is the author unbiased? Are they trying to sell you something? Do they support their argument?
S—Support. Does the author list their sources? Are those reliable sources?
Taking notes from your sources
Don’t forget to take notes WHILE you are conducting your research. In a separate document, write down or copy/paste any relevant information from the source, including where in the source you found the information.
HINT: This is a great time to practice paraphrasing. Write down the notes in your own words, and you will be able to use them as you wrote them. If you do copy/paste from the document, be sure that you give yourself a clue in the notes, such as including it in quotations.
HINT: Don’t forget to copy the citation and URL along with the notes that you take. This will save you time and frustration trying to remember where a quote or reference came from. And if you already have the citation down in the correct format, it will be easier to incorporate the citation into your References list.
4. Create a working thesis statement
A good thesis statement will explain the approach you will take with your topic (e.g., defining the topic, compare/contrasting two elements of the topic, arguing a position about the topic, etc.), as well as give your readers a guide in how you will develop your thesis.
How to create a thesis statement
After you have narrowed down your topic and have some research notes, write down a specific working thesis. Just like your topic, a working thesis can be changed or altered as you progress through the writing process.
Consider these points in making a strong thesis statement:
A strong thesis statement should be SPECIFIC—it should only contain what you will be covering in your paper.
A strong thesis statement should include the direction that you will take in arguing, describing, and/or supporting the main points in your paper.
A strong thesis statement shows why your paper is worth reading. It shows your readers that your position on your topic is worthy of discussion.
A strong thesis statement uses specific nouns, action verbs, and a strong statement about the topic in your thesis statement.
See the Writing Center's guide to creating a thesis statement for more information.
5. Create an outline for your paper
Creating an outline for your paper will give you a clear idea of how you want your argument to unfold. It will act as a road map for writing the paper. A good outline will make sure that all your points are relevant to your thesis, and that you follow a logical order in presenting your ideas and support.
Think of the main points that you want to make to support your thesis. Make sure that each point is relevant.
Put those points in a logical order.
List supporting ideas or arguments that support each point
Create your outline with those points.
See the Writing Center's guide to creating an outline for more information.
Gather your notes from your research. Make sure that you know where the notes originated (having a citation ready with your notes will help you keep track of the origination of your notes).
Align your notes with your outline by marking where you would like to incorporate the citations and quotes into your paper. If you see that you need support for points that you wish to make, you may find that you need to conduct additional research for support. Also, you may find information that you did not count on while researching that affects your thesis. Decide if and how you may want to include this research in your paper as well.
7. Write the first draft (introduction, body, conclusion, references)
Once you have organized your notes and have a good idea of how you will organize your paper (with the outline), you are ready to proceed with writing your paper.
Some tips on writing your first draft:
Reread the prompt or assignment again carefully, making sure that you understand what the assignment requires. If you have a rubric to guide you, read it carefully as well.
Don’t worry about grammar, punctuation, or capitalization errors while you write. Your main purpose when writing your first draft is to get the writing on the page. You can correct any mistakes after you get the first draft written.
Be sure to incorporate your research into your writing. If you make a statement about the topic, back it up with support from your research. Incorporating your citations in the first draft can help you with the editing process—you won’t have to search through your notes to find which citation goes where in your paper.
Keep your thesis in mind as you write. Remember that you want to have each of your points support your thesis.
Use double spacing for easier reading and drafting.
Lastly, allow enough time to complete the paper! The writing process involves several steps, each of which can take quite a bit of time. Finding research articles to support your thesis, reading those articles and taking notes, coming up with a thesis statement, outlining your paper, writing several drafts, and proofreading takes more than a few hours. Be sure to schedule your time for each step, allowing plenty of time for each.
8. Edit and revise (as many times as needed)
The editing process may involve both editing the content of your paper, as well as ensuring that your paper is free of any grammatical errors. You may want to focus on the content first, making sure that you have supported your thesis with research. You will want to make sure that your paper is focused only on the thesis and does not stray into areas that are not relevant. You should also check to see if you have correctly cited your sources to avoid any potential plagiarism.
After you have made any edits to the content, you will want to correct any grammatical and/or syntax errors.
A good way to proofread for grammar, punctuation, and syntax is to read the text aloud to yourself. You will catch more mistakes than if you only used your eyes. Read it through more than one time. You may also want to have a trusted friend, colleague, or an academic success coach in the Writing Center read over it as well.
After proofreading your paper and checking that it is error and plagiarism free, you are ready to turn in your paper.
— Jamaine Bell
An annotated bibliography is essentially a references list with notes about each source. It's a common assignment in college classes, and it can be an excellent way of staying organized when conducting research.
Each entry in an annotated bibliography can be thought of as having three parts:
For example, imagine you were writing a research paper about college students and their beliefs about writing. If you planned to use the TED talk "The Power of Believing You Can Improve" by the psychologist Carol Dweck, your entry in an annotated bibliography might look like:
Dweck, C. (2014, November). The power of believing you can improve. TED.
https://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve
In her TED talk, Dweck (2014) explained her mindset theory regarding how people respond to challenges. She discussed the differences between growth mindset and fixed mindset and summarized some of her research on methods of encouraging growth mindset in children. She concluded by stating that the benefits of a growth mindset should be considered a “basic human right” for all students. Dweck is a psychology professor at Stanford University and well known for her research into mindset theory. While her TED talk is mostly focused on K–12 students, her theories are applicable in a college setting as well. I may quote directly from Dweck to define and characterize growth and fixed mindsets in students.
An argumentative essay, sometimes called a persuasive essay, seeks to convince a chosen audience to believe in a specific idea or to undertake a specific action. In academic writing, argumentative essays are bolstered with research on a topic that is integrated into and supports the argument being made.
Argumentative essays take a stand on an issue. They often answer a research question that can be answered with a yes or no answer. The purpose is to support that answer with research and sound logic. By integrating research and reasoning, the author’s purpose is to convince the reader that their argument is justified and correct.
A variety of rhetorical devices are used to convince readers of an argument, however in academic writing, two are of upmost importance: logic (reasoning), and credibility. Logic and reasoning are established by connecting ideas, patterns, and observations in an inductive or deductive way. Credibility is gained by citing supporting research and data from outside sources. Therefore, making logical connections and deductions and having well-researched and cited sources will support and strengthen your argument.
Steps to writing an argumentative essay
Start with a research question that can be answered with a yes or no answer.
Research the topic to determine what research says about the topic. If the topic is too broad, use the researching period to narrow down the topic to a manageable point.
Gather research that supports both sides of the argument (yes and no). Note connections, similarities, and differences.
Choose which side of the argument you wish to argue and write a thesis statement that answers the question and gives a framework for supporting your answer.
For information on how to write a good thesis statement, visit Maria College’s page at: https://mariacollege.libguides.com/c.php?g=1294472&p=9845702
Create an outline that supports the argument. Each paragraph of the body of the essay should have one point that supports or shows the opposing views of your argument.
Write the introduction, ending with the thesis statement.
Write the body paragraphs. Each paragraph should have one idea that either supports your argument or shows the opposing views of your argument. To strengthen your argument further, demonstrate how each of the opposing views is incorrect or not as important as those that support your argument.
Write the conclusion paragraph. In your conclusion: restate the thesis statement in different words, briefly restate your main points, and then either give a prediction, a recommendation, make a bold statement, or do a combination of the three.
Proofread for citations, grammar, and the logical flow of your argument’s points.
— Jamaine Bell
Discussion boards are a common feature of online (and even in-person) classes. When composing a discussion post, consider the following:
When replying to others in a discussion forum, consider following the “3CQ Method”:
Beyond this advice, remember that the Writing and Communication Center is here to help you craft your discussion posts—book an appointment today!
Literary criticism is the analysis and interpretation of literary works. While some critics may focus on the quality of the work, most academic literary criticism seeks to analyze literature in connection with the author’s intent or message, and/or how the work connects to larger themes in society.
Many avenues of inquiry can be used to analyze a literary work, including analyzing the characters, themes, settings, relationship to current or past events, use of language, style of writing, use of literary techniques, or relationship to larger philosophical or social ideas, to name a few.
Most academic literary criticism papers will focus on one aspect of a work as it connects to a larger theme. Understanding the concept of theme, as well as other aspects of literary writing, will be necessary.
Steps to writing a literary criticism paper:
First, read through your professor’s instructions carefully. Consider everything that is required for the paper—is there a particular angle to the paper? (Character analysis, theme analysis, compare/contrast with another work, etc.) Are outside sources required? Is there a rubric provided?
Reread the work, or your notes about the work to refresh your memory. Think about the angle that the professor suggested or the assignment prompt that was given.
Make notes on sections of the work and how they fit with the assignment prompt or angle for the paper.
Research outside sources, if needed. Read through and make notes on key points.
Make a list of key points from the work and outside sources, making connections to the assignment prompt or possible thesis.
Write a working thesis statement that either answers the assignment prompt or follows the instructions given for the assignment. Your thesis statement should be specific and have a framework for supporting your statement. For information on creating a thesis statement, visit the Maria College Writing Center page at: https://mariacollege.libguides.com/c.php?g=1294472&p=9845702
Create an outline for your paper. Each paragraph should focus on one point that supports your thesis.
Draft your paper.
Read through for clarity, cohesiveness, and completeness. Edit as needed.
Proof and edit for grammar and typos.
— Jamaine Bell
What is a literature review?
A literature review can stand alone or can be a part of a larger paper. It reviews research pertaining to a specific topic and examines the relationships between the different research with each other and to the topic, which is often referred to as “synthesis” (Purdue Owl, n.d.). This synthesis evaluates the overall research found on a topic, looking for trends, patterns, and gaps in that research.
When a literature review is a part of a larger paper or research project, its purpose is to explore all the relevant published research regarding the topic of the project. This demonstrates that the author or researcher has thoroughly explored the background knowledge of the topic. The literature review also provides an opportunity to uncover any gaps or contradictions in relevant research on the topic that could be addressed in the paper.
What is the structure of a literature review?
Literature reviews can be structured in a variety of ways, depending on the need or purpose of the review. For assignments, refer to your professor’s guidelines for the purpose and structure of your literature review assignment.
Generally, the purpose of the literature review could be either to summarize the research or to critically evaluate the research. Critically evaluating the overall research on a topic is the most common purpose of a literature review. Structurally, the literature review could be either structured chronologically or focused on differing criteria of information.
Steps for writing a literature review:
Define a topic of research. Generally speaking, you will want to narrow your research as much as possible, so that your research results are not overwhelmingly large.
Conduct research on your topic. Be sure to try different key words in your search. As you conduct your research, you may find ways to narrow your topic based on your findings. Also, note what research is missing on the topic, as that will be explored in your literature review as well.
If you are having trouble finding more research articles on a topic, look in the “References” section of the articles that you do find. These often point to other relevant research articles that you can look up.
Take notes on your research findings. Note the major findings/results. Make a note of patterns in the research you find. Note what may be missing as well.
Organize your notes by themes, similarities, and dissimilarities. Are any questions left unanswered? What patterns emerge? Think about how you will discuss your findings. This step is essential if you are going to critically analyze the findings.
Create an outline of your literature review. This will be based on the purpose and structure that you will employ. Will you organize your paper chronologically or by critical evaluation points?
Write your first draft. Remember that each paragraph will focus on one subtopic area of your overall topic.
After writing the first draft, reread it and compare it to your notes. Did you leave anything out? Does it flow from one subtopic to the next? Do you use transition sentences from one paragraph to the next? Are there any missing pieces of information?
Examples of Literature Reviews
A variety of examples of different types of literature reviews, along with explanations of their structure and use can be found at:
https://helpfulprofessor.com/literature-review-examples/
Here are some specific examples of literature reviews relating to health care (from the website):
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ijcp.12686
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092422441730122X
References
Drew, C. (2023, December 6). 15 literature review examples. HelpfulProfessor. https://helpfulprofessor.com/literature-review-examples/
Purdue Owl. (n.d.). Writing a literature review. Purdue Online Learning Lab. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/conducting_research/writing_a_literature_review.html
— Jamaine Bell
Narrative writing is generally thought of as “storytelling.” When reading or writing a narrative, storytelling elements are present. Those elements include plot, characters, settings, and themes. Understanding these elements, along with figurative language techniques used by writers to evoke those elements of the story, is important for those who write narratives and for those who write about narratives (literary criticism).
Elements of Narratives
Plot—The events that take place in a narrative are called the “plot.” Plots can follow different trajectories. Some plots start with an action and then build in increasingly larger actions and suspense until the climax of the story, which is when the biggest and most consequential action occurs, changing the main characters in some way. This is the classic plot line trajectory. Plot is often confused with theme. The theme of a narrative does not include the events that happened in the story—that is the plot.
Characters—Depending on the narrative, characters can be represented by any type of living or inanimate object (think of the chinaware and other inanimate characters in Disney’s Beauty and the Beast.) When discussing characters, readers often talk about the “protagonist”, who is considered the main character in the narrative, and the “antagonist”, who is the main villain in the narrative. The conflict between the two, and between them and other characters or elements, usually serves as the main driver of the plot.
Conflict—As noted above, conflict is a necessary element in narrative writing. Without some sort of conflict, the story is uninteresting, and the plot never progresses. The conflict in a narrative does not have to be between two characters, however. Conflict can occur between a character and the elements, or between two conflicting ideas in the mind, or between the character’s thoughts and emotions. As long as some sort of conflict is present, the plot of the story can advance.
Climax—Climax is related to the development of the plot in relation to the conflict. As the plot develops, the conflict increases in intensity over a period of time until, at last, the conflict peaks in intensity, causing a change in the characters. This peak in intensity is the climax of the plot. Everything that happens after the climax has less intensity that leads to the resolution of the narrative.
Resolution—The resolution of a narrative refers to the time after the climax, when the threads of the plot are pulled together, and a new understanding and stasis has been experienced by the characters (and often the audience as well.)
Setting—The setting of a narrative refers to the location of the story. Setting can also refer to the time period of the story. Settings can change in a narrative or can stay the same.
Theme—Theme is often confused with plot. Theme refers to the overall universal message that the reader gets from the story. A universal message is one that can apply to many people or narratives and is not specific to any one story. For example, in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, several themes can be found, such as: love is stronger than family ties, youth is impetuous, those who hate will suffer the most, or romantic love creates unbreakable bonds. These potential themes can apply to many people in the world and can be themes for other stories. The most important aspect of them is that they are universal and not specific to one story.
— Jamaine Bell
An outline maps out each section of your paper and gives you a plan to follow in writing your paper. Outlining prior to writing will help you organize your information and decide what each section or paragraph will contain and the order that the information will be presented. Outlines use condensed information, allowing you to organize the information quickly without having to write out long paragraphs.
By creating an outline before writing your paper, you can visualize how the information you will present will flow. You can also use outlines to ensure that each paragraph is focused on the thesis of the paper and doesn’t stray into irrelevant information. Outlines can also show you where there is missing information or support for your thesis.
Structure of an outline
While each outline is unique and reflects an individual paper, the structures of outlines are similar. Each section (or paragraph) will start a new line with subsequent subheadings indented below that line. While you can include as much information as you need, keep in mind that the outline is meant to be a map to give you directions in writing your paper. The information in the outline can be brief and/or abbreviated.
Here is a sample format for an outline (keep in mind that this can and should be modified to fit your paper’s specific needs.)
How to write an outline
Before you are ready to outline your paper, you will need to do some preliminary work. Keep in mind, however, that your outline is a working document. You are certainly able to add, subtract, or move things around as you work and discover more about the topic.
First, you should have your topic and a working thesis statement (one or two sentences that tell exactly what your paper is about).
Have your research done and notes taken.
Decide what information you want to include in your paper.
Order the information in a logical way (see example above).
Don’t forget to include where you want to place quotes and/or outside support in your paper.
Write your outline. You don’t need to write paragraphs, or even whole sentences, but you should be able to understand it and be able to use it as a guide for writing your paper once you finish (I.e., be sure to include enough information so that you can follow it).
— Jamaine Bell
How is scientific writing different from other types of academic writing?
Scientific writing shares similarities with academic writing, in that both use a formal tone, strive for clarity, and support their arguments with research. The pinnacle of success for both scientific writing and academic writing is publication in a peer-reviewed academic journal. However, while academic writers can take some liberties with tone, language, and interpretation of information, scientific writers follow more stringent expectations. The expectations in scientific writing include accuracy, formality, a lack of slang and jargon (Hoogenboom, 2012), and a clear presentation of information in an established format.
The format for a scientific research paper
Scientific papers follow a specific format (your assignments may not include all sections):
Abstract—The abstract is a short summary, usually only one paragraph, of the paper from beginning to end, including the results and conclusion. Keywords are often included at the end.
Introduction—The introduction serves to introduce the topic, the research question, and the thesis, as well as discuss the importance of the topic to the field. Introductions are often paired with the Review of the Literature to fill in the background information relevant to your paper.
Review of the Literature—This section, sometimes called the Literature Review, is an opportunity to explore the research available on a topic and the thesis. Reviewing and analyzing themes, trends, and gaps in the available research shows that the thesis has been carefully considered and is supported by credible sources.
Methods—This section contains information on the methods used in the research to gather data or results. The information given in this section should be specific and detailed, so that another person could follow the same methods (Hoogenboom, 2012). This section will contain specific information and may reference figures to show specific tools used to obtain data.
Results—This section shows the raw data gathered through the methods specified in the paper. Data that is obtained may be quantitative, qualitative, or both. No interpretation of the data is given in the Results section. Results must be reported “neutrally” (Hoogenboom, 2012).
Discussion—The discussion section is where the results are described, interpreted, and analyzed. Patterns and trends may be found. Limitations may be discussed. However, do not stretch the discussion outside of the bounds of the thesis of the paper (Hoogenboom, 2012).
Conclusion—The conclusion generally restates the thesis and the main points or findings of the paper. The conclusion is also where recommendations and predictions are made regarding the results.
References
Hoogenboom, B. J., & Manske, R. C. (2012). How to write a scientific article. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 7(5), 512–517.
— Jamaine Bell
At some point in your academic life, you may be asked to write a summary. Writing a summary shows that you understand the ideas in a text as well as the author’s argument or position. A good summary will discuss the main idea and supporting details of a text in your own words, without any of your opinions or commentary on the text.
Summaries should be shorter than the original text and should focus on the main points. The purpose of a summary is to present those points in your own words in a condensed form.
What to include in a summary:
Name of the author and title of the text
The main idea or ideas in the text
Some supporting details
Your own words (no quotations from the text)
No opinions or commentary of your own
Short and concise writing
Steps to writing a summary
Read the source text thoroughly.
Highlight the main idea.
List the main points and supporting details.
Don’t get too many details! Your summary should be concise.
Write your summary. Be sure to include the name of the author and title of the work you are summarizing.
Use author tags, such as “The writer states,” “Beckwith argues that,” or “According to Nelson” to show that you are summarizing what the author has written.
Don’t give your opinion or interpretation of what is written. You are simply reporting on what the article states.
Edit and revise your draft. Eliminate any irrelevant or extraneous information.
Proofread for errors.
— Jamaine Bell
Appointments can be booked online through the Penji scheduling system. Log in with your MyMaria email credentials and select an appointment type.
See the "Book an Appointment" page for a step-by-step guide to scheduling time with an Academic Success Coach.
Matt Galletta
Director
mgalletta@mariacollege.edu
Jamaine Bell
Academic Success Coach in Writing and ELL
jbell@mariacollege.edu