Writing Center: Grammar & Usage

Some general usage rules for apostrophes:

Use apostrophes when combining or shortening words with a contraction:

• They are = They’re
• You are = You’re
• Is not = Isn’t

Use apostrophes for possessives

For most singular words, add ’s to the end of the word to show ownership:

• The hat belonging to Joe = Joe’s hat
• The dog’s bowl

For singular words ending in S, still add ’s:

• The teacher of the class = The class’s teacher
• The desk belonging to the boss = The boss’s desk

For plural words ending in S, just add the apostrophe:

• The books of the students = The students’ books
• The house belonging to the Smiths = The Smiths’ house

Don’t use apostrophes for plurals:

• She skated perfect figure 8s.
• The 1920s are known as the Jazz Age.
• I own many DVDs.
• I like turtles.

Some general usage rules for commas:

Use commas to separate three or more items in a series or list:

• She is a caring, compassionate, dedicated person.

Note that APA specifically calls for using a serial comma before the "and" in a series:

• Their names were Moe, Larry, and Curly.
• He ordered a cheeseburger, fries, and a milkshake.

Use commas with introductory phrases:

• According to Dweck (2014), growth mindset can be taught.
• However, changing one's mindset is not easy.

Use commas with quotations:

• She said, "I'm going to the Writing Center later today."

Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for/and/nor/but/or/so) connecting two independent clauses:

• She wanted to go to the hardware store, but she didn't have the time.

Place a comma between coordinating adjectives (adjectives that can be reversed in order and can put "and" between them): 

• The clerk was helpful, friendly, and polite.

However, DO NOT put a comma between adjectives whose order cannot be reversed:

• The bright red ball rolled away.
• The old Greek statue is gone.

Use a comma before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses that provide extra information but are not essential for the meaning of the sentence:

• The parents decided, however, to go to the school.

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses (clauses that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. May begin with the relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, and which):

• Her backpack, which had all her belongings in it, was lost.

Use a comma to set off an appositive phrase (a noun or a phrase that referes to a nearby noun):

• The neighbor, a teacher, helped with the activities.

Use a comma for a direct address to a person:

• John, I think you need to go with me. 
• What do you think, Mary? 

Use a comma in dates, titles, addresses, and numbers:

• I was born on April 12, 1945.
• Please send it to Maria College, 700 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208.

• He made 3,458 wrong turns on the way to Los Angeles.

Use a comma to set off an "--ing" phrase that refers back to the middle or start of the sentence:

• The baby looked at his mother, giggling joyfully.

And don’t forget, commas can save lives! 

• Let’s eat Grandma! 
• Let’s eat, Grandma! 

When writing in APA style, it is generally best to spell out whole numbers zero through nine in words and use numerals for numbers 10 and above.

For example:

• I drank six cups of coffee while writing my research paper.
• My research paper is 12 pages long.

Exceptions to this general rule:

• When a number is the first word of the sentence, spell it out—though it is often better to rephrase the sentence.
  • Ninety-nine students visited the Writing Center last week.
  • Better: Last week, 99 students visited the Writing Center.
• Use numerals for numbers preceding a measurement.
  • The dosage was 5 mL.
• Use numerals for times, ages, and percentages.
  • It was 5 o’clock.
  • The patient was 9 years old.
  • The survey results indicated 8% of respondents strongly agreed and 20% strongly disagreed.

Grammar rules can change over time, based on language usage.

One example: As of the 7th edition of The Publication Manual of the APA, the singular use of “they” is permitted in academic writing. The generic, singular “they” is recognized by multiple other style guides as well as the Merriam-Webster dictionary.

As explicitly stated in the Publication Manual: “The use of the singular ‘they’ is inclusive of all people, helps writers avoid making assumptions about gender, and is part of APA Style” (APA, 2020, p. 121).

Some guidance regarding “they”:

• When writing generically, it is best to avoid “he or she,” “him or her” constructions.
  • Avoid: A good nurse cares for his or her patients.
  • Instead: A good nurse cares for their patients.
• In these writing situations, it is sometimes best to pluralize your subject:
  • Better: Good nurses care for their patients.
• When referring to a specific person in writing, use their identified pronouns.